Of higher priority, however, were developing systems to synchronize naval gunfire and develop- ing an amphibious tractor to land troops. After World War I and throughout the interwar period, the leadership of the Marine Corps recognized that armored forces would be an important factor to support the seizure of advanced bases and islands. 4 These failures were the catalyst for doctrinal and technological changes that affected future Marine Corps campaigns in the Pacific theater of operations. 3 Commanding officers in the Fleet Marine Force (FMF) acknowledged improvements must be made to correct the problems encountered on Betio Island, among them the ineffective employment of tanks. 2 The American public demanded that Marine Corps leaders be held accountable for what they considered a catastrophic military failure. Armored forces in particular took upwards of 86 percent losses-the result of poor communication, poor planning, and ineffective firepower. When the battle ended, it cost the 2d Marine Division 3,301 casualties in only three days of combat. In November 1943, crisis shifted the doctrinal paradigm for the U.S. Over time, these principles become the paradigm for how units function, enabling troops and commanders to act quickly against foreseeable threats. It is the frame of reference used by soldiers and leaders to organize, train, and fight. Doctrine provides solutions to tactical or operational problems.
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